Remembering – The June 16 – 1976 Soweto Youth Uprising

From http://www.sahistory.org.za/, images by bab Peter Magubane, videos by OGOLOTSE NTWAAGAE and Take a stand, Student Activism

The June 16 1976 Uprising that began in Soweto and spread countrywide profoundly changed the socio-political landscape in South Africa. Events that triggered the uprising can be traced back to policies of the Apartheid government that resulted in the introduction of the Bantu Education Act in 1953. The rise of the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) and the formation of South African Students Organisation (SASO) raised the political consciousness of many students while others joined the wave of anti-Apartheid sentiment within the student community. When the language of Afrikaans alongside English was made compulsory as a medium of instruction in schools in 1974, black students began mobilizing themselves. On 16 June 1976 between 3000 and 10 000 students mobilized by the Soweto Students Representative Council’s Action Committee supported by the BCM marched peacefully to demonstrate and protest against the government’s directive. The march was meant to culminate at a rally in Orlando Stadium.

On their pathway they were met by heavily armed police who fired teargas and later live ammunition on demonstrating students. This resulted in a widespread revolt that turned into an uprising against the government. While the uprising began in Soweto, it spread across the country and carried on until the following year.

The aftermath of the events of June 16 1976 had dire consequences for the Apartheid government. Images of the police firing on peacefully demonstrating students led an international revulsion against South Africa as its brutality was exposed. Meanwhile, the weakened and exiled liberation movements received new recruits fleeing political persecution at home giving impetus to the struggle against Apartheid.

Oppression through inferior education and the 1976 Soweto uprising

An increase in secondary school attendance had a significant effect on youth culture. Previously, many young people spent the time between leaving primary school and obtaining a job (if they were lucky) in gangs, which generally lacked any political consciousness. But now secondary school students were developing their own. In 1969 the black South African Student Organization (SASO) was formed.

Though Bantu Education was designed to deprive Africans and isolate them from ‘subversive’ ideas, indignation at being given such ‘gutter’ education became a major focus for resistance, most notably in the 1976 Soweto uprising. In the wake of this effective and clear protest, some reform attempts were made, but it was a case of too little, too late. Major disparities in racially separate education provision continued into the 1990s.

When high-school students in Soweto started protesting for better education on 16 June 1976, police responded with teargas and live bullets. It is commemorated today by a South African national holiday, Youth day, which honors all the young people who lost their lives in the struggle against Apartheid and Bantu Education.

In the 1980s very little education at all took place in the Bantu Education system, which was the target of almost continuous protest. The legacy of decades of inferior education (underdevelopment, poor self-image, economic depression, unemployment, crime, etc.) has lasted far beyond the introduction of a single educational system in 1994 with the first democratic elections, and the creation of the Government of National Unity.

June 16 Soweto Youth Uprising

The introduction of Afrikaans alongside English as a medium of instruction is considered the immediate cause of the Soweto uprising, but there are a various factors behind the 1976 student unrest. These factors can certainly be traced back to the Ban tu Education Act introduced by the Apartheid government in 1953. The Act introduced a new Department of Bantu Education which was integrated into the Department of Native Affairs under Dr He ndrik F. Verwoerd. The provisions of the Bantu Education Act and some policy statements made by the Bantu Education Department were directly responsible for the uprisings. Dr Verwoerd, who engineered the Bantu Education Act, announced that “Natives (blacks) must be taught from an early age that equality with Europeans (whites) is not for them”.

Although the Bantu Education Act made it easier for more children to attend school in Soweto than it had been with the missionary system of education, there was a great deal of discontent about the lack of facilities. Throughout the country there was a dire shortage of classrooms for Black children. There was also a lack of teachers and many of the teachers were under-qualified. Nationally, pupil-to-teacher ratios went up from 46:1 in 1955 to 58:1 in 1967. Because of the lack of proper classrooms and the crippling government homeland policy, students were forced to return to “their homelands” to attend the newly built schools there.

The government was spending far more on White education than on Black education; R644 was spent annually for each White student, while only R42 was budgeted for a Black school child. In 1976 there were 257 505 pupils enrolled in Form 1 at high schools which had a capacity for only 38 000 students.

To alleviate the situation pupils who had passed their standard six examinations were requested to repeat the standard. This was met with great resentment by the students and their parents. Although the situation did not lead to an immediate revolt, it certainly served to build up tensions prior to the 1976 student uprising.

In 1975 the government was phasing out Standard Eight (or Junior Certificate (JC)). By then, Standard Six had already been phased out and many students graduating from Primary Schools were being sent to the emerging Junior Secondary Schools. It was in these Junior Secondary schools that the 50-50 language rule was to be applied.

The issue that caused massive discontent and made resentment boil over into the 1976 uprising was a decree issued by the Bantu Education Department. Deputy Minister Andries Treur nicht sent instructions to the School Boards, inspectors and principals to the effect that Afrikaans should be put on an equal basis with English as a medium of instruction in all schools. These instructions drew immediate negative reaction from various quarters of the community. The first body to react was the Tswana School Boards, which comprised school boards from Meadowlands, Dobsonville and other areas in Soweto. The minutes of the meeting of the Tswana School Board held on 20 January 1976 read:

“The circuit inspector told the board that the Secretary for Bantu Education has stated that all direct taxes paid by the Black population of South Africa are being sent to the various homelands for educational purposes there.

“In urban areas the education of a Black child is being paid for by the White population, that is English and Afrikaans speaking groups. Therefore the Secretary for Bantu Education has the responsibility of satisfying the English and Afrikaans-speaking people. Consequently, as the only way of satisfying both groups, the medium of instruction in all schools shall be on a 50-50 basis…. In future, if schools teach through a medium not prescribed by the department for a particular subject, examination question papers will only be set in the medium with no option of the other language”.

Teachers also raised objections to the government announcement. Some Black teachers, who were members of the African Teachers Association of South Africa, complained that they were not fluent in Afrikaans. The students initially organised themselves into local cultural groups and youth clubs. At school there was a significant number of branches of the Students Christian Movements (SCMs), which were largely apolitical in character. SASM penetrated these formations between 1974 and 1976. And when conditions ripened for the outbreak of protests, SASM formed an Action Committee on 13 June 1976, which was later renamed the Soweto Student Representative Council (SSRC). They were conscientised and influenced by national organisations such as the Black Peoples’ Convention (BPC), South African Student Organisations (SASO)and by the Black Consciousness philosophy. They rejected the idea of being taught in the language of the oppressor.

The uprising took place at a time when liberation movements were banned throughout the country and South Africa was in the grip of apartheid. The protest started off peacefully in So wetobut it turned violent when the police opened fire on unarmed students. By the third day the unrest had gained momentum and spread to townships around Soweto and other parts of the country. The class of 1976 bravely took to the streets and overturned the whole notion that workers were the only essential force to challenge the apartheid regime. Indeed, they succeeded where their parents had failed. They not only occupied city centres but also closed schools and alcohol outlets.

1894-1994

June 16 Soweto Youth Uprising casualties

Name	Place of death	Age	Date	Cause of death
Adams, Sandra Joyce	Kew Town	15	16.9.76	Shot in front of head (ricochet) on 3rd floor balcony
Adriaanse, Noel John	Hanover Park	13	2.9.76	Shot through left side of head
Africa, Pieter	Montagu	24	11.9.76	White Supply. Details of death under investigation
Albern, Bazil	Elsie’s River	16	9.9.76	Shot to side of abdomen
Allie, Abduraghman	Ravensmead		7.9.76	Shot in chest from front
Appolis, Christopher	Menenberg	16	10.9.76	Shot in head from front, Jordaan Road
August, Victor L.	Gugulethu		31.12.76	Reported missing during December disturbances
Bakubaku, Golden	Nyanga		26.12.76	Killed by migrant workers
Balnardo, Gary Sandy	Grassy Park	19	16.9.76	Shot through buttock and chest from front, at Head Road.
Barnes, Isaac	Bonteheuwel	16	25.8.76	Shot in chest from front
Barnes, Sydney	Gugulethu	32	26.8.76	Beaten to death by group of migrant workers
Barron, James	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot through the head
Bezuidenhout, Isaac	Mosselbay		14.9.76	Burried
Bota, Michael	Nyanga East		26.12.76	Shot dead
Botha, William	Nyanga		26.12.76	Killed by migrant workers
Botha, Neville, J.G.	Retreat	20	8.9.76	Shot in stomach from front
Buba, Lawrence	Philippi	14	9.9.76	Shot in chest from front
Buthelezi, Leonard	Soweto	39	4.8.76	Gunshot wounds to the head and body
Buthelezi, Joyce		16	26.12.76	Shotgun wounds to chest and head when police fired on students at Sekano-Ntoane High School
Carolissen, Gasant	Hanover Park	21	2.9.76	Shot in chest from front
Carolissen, Ronald C.	Stellenbosch	22	9.9.76
Cezala, Bonekeli			31.12.76	Reported missing in December disturbances
Cloete, Joseph E.		30	9.9.76	Shot in cheek and abdomen from front and in back and neck from behind
Cook,, Faried	Manenberg	16	9.9.76	Shot in neck from behind
Cooke, Rodney	Bontehewel	24	25.8.76	Shot in chest from front
Dajee, Bhanudey	Retreat	37	8.9.76	Shot in lungs and heart
Daniels, Patrick J	Elsises’ River	24	9.9.76	Shot in back of head
Daniels, John	Retreat	35	8.9.76	Shot in left side of chest
Daniels, Kammips	Cleetesville	33	7.9.76	Shot dead
Davids, John	Menenberg	16	9.9.76	Shot in head from behind, in Thomas Avenue
Davids, Mogamat Rushaad	Athlone	24	27.12.76	Shot in back
Dlanza, Dennis Bantu	Langa	22	27.12.76	Shot in Langa
Dondi, T.S.B.	Gugulethu		16.9.76	Shot
Domtsa, Mellville N.		46	26.12.76	Shot dead
Dube, Yvonne	Paarl East	45	9.9.76	Inquest revealed that she died after seven pellets from a shotgun had been fired at her. The magistrate found that no body could be held responsible for her death. She had been among a group of people throwing stones.
Dunga, Gidliza	Epton		1.12.76	Shot dead
Dithipe, Elifas	Kagiso		31.12.76
Dladla, Baby	Soweto	28	14.6.76	Shot through the head
Dlamini, Emmanuel	Soweto		26.12.76
Edelstein, Melville Leonard	Soweto		16.6.76
Eesterhuizen, Johannes Hendrik	Soweto		26.12.76
Elliot, Charles	Manenberg	16	9.9.76	Shot in abdomen from font
Essop, Dawood	Bonteheuwel	30	25.8.76	Shot in back
Ferguson, Herry A.J.D	Hanover Park	30	2.9.76	Shot through lungs from behind
Finch, Alfred A.	Retreat	15	9.9.76	Shot in right side of chest from front
Fish, Edward	Ravensmead	25	7.9.76	Shot in right side of chest and abdomen from front
Fisher, Ivy	Langa	32	12.8.76	Shot in right side of head
Follie, Enoch	Soweto		18.6.76	Shot above the heart
Garnie, R.W.	Alexandra		26.12.76	Shot in right shoulder
Gasnola, Suleman	Lansdowene	17	9.9.76	Shot in chest from side
Gcwabe, Abel Daniso	Gugulethu		1.11.76	Shot dead
Genu, Fetras	Gugulethu	18	12.8.76	Shot in chest from front
Gincana, Atwell			18.6.76
Gishi, Jackson		67	27.12.76	Under investigation
Gobile, Christopher	Gugulethu	26	21.8.76	Shot in abdomen from front
Godwe, Jeffery	Soweto		18.6.76
Gonxeka, Sidney Z.	Langa	18	28.12.76	Shot dead
Gule, Petrus	Soweto	15	26.8.76	Gunshot wound of head
Gumata, Jumba	Soweto	26	26.12.76
Gushamn, Mhlangabezi E	Gugulethu	28	11.8.76	Shot in head from front
Guwa, Nelson	Gugulethu	48	26.12.76	Axed to death by migrant workers
Harris, Ronald	Silvertown	25	16.9.76	Shot in chest from front
Hlakula, Stanley Mlamli	Gugulethu	26	27.12.76	Shot dead
Hoogaardt, Spasiena	Hugenot, Paarl	15	9.9.76	Shotss
Hlatshwayo, Joyce	Soweto		26.12.76
Hlongwane, Johannes	Soweto	43	12.9.76
Hlongwane, Petros	Soweto	29	25.7.76
Hlokwane, N.C.	Alexandra		26.12.76	Crushed by bus
Isaacs, Colin	Retreat	31	9.9.76	Shot in neck from behind
Isaacs, John	Manenberg	15	9.9.76	Shot
Jacobs, Shaheed	Distirct Six	15	3.9.76	Shot through side of neck and chest at corner of Sackville and Vincent Streets, Cape Town.
Jacobs, Mervyn	Elsies’ River	16	8.9.76	Shot in back
Jacobs, John	Manenberg	15	9.9.76	Shot in arm and chest from left at Green Dolphin Bottle Store, Jordaan Road.
Jelems, Government	Nyanga		27.12.76	Shot and axed to death
Johnson, Erol	Manenberg		4.2.77	Shot in stomach
Jonas, Lawrence	Nyanga	26	26.12.76	Killed by migrant workers
Kahn, Nazeem	Manenberg		16.9.76	Shot in chest and abdomen from an angle
Kalakahla, Samson Fantu	Soweto	26	25.8.76
Kalane, George	Soweto	15	26.12.76
Kamesi, Andries	Gugulethu	25	11.8.76	Shot in head from front
Kamfer, Christiaan B.	Ravensmead	16	7.9.76	Shot in chest from front
Khalipha, Richard	Nyanga	4months	15.1.77	Cause of death unknown
Khan, Naziem	Manenberg	15	16.9.76
Kleinschmidt, Amgeline	Elsis’ River	31	8.9.76	Shot in back of head
Komani, Brian	Nyanga	27	26.12.76	Shot dead
Kumalo, Joseph	Gugulethu	22	3.9.76	Shot in abdomen from front
Kwisomba, Harry	Gugulethu	30	26.12,76	Shot to death
Kambule, Eliakim Sutu		50		Multiple injuries to body
Kekane, Andries	Mamelodi		31,12,76
Kekane, Shadrack	Soweto		26.12.76
Keokame, Marshall	Soweto		16.6.76
Kgampe, Philemon	Soweto		26.12.76
Kgapule, Edward	Soweto		26.12.77
Kgate, Sydney		46		Shot dead
Kgoadi, Gustov	Soweto		26.12.76
Kgokong, Linda	Daveyton		31.12.76
Kgongoana, Ariel “Pro”	Soweto		16.6.76
Kgupisi, Herbert	Soweto		26.12.76
Khaje, Sydney Kabelo	Soweto	47	26.12.76	Shot
Khambule, Godfrey	Soweto	12	24.8.76	Gun shot wounds when police fired at crowd
Khoza, John	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Khumalo, Columbus	Soweto		26.12.76
Khumalo, Daniel	Soweto	24	19.6.76	Multiple injuries to body.
Khumalo, Nehemiah M.	Soweto	24	21.6.76	Stabbed above the heart.
Koalana, Doctor	Soweto		26.12.76
Koalana, Willy	Soweto		26.12.76
Kobedi, Kabelo	Soweto		25.6.76
Koloane, David D.		16	24.8/76	Gunshot wound. Police alleged at inquest that he attacked a policeman with an axe
Kolonga, David	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Kubeka, Johannes	Soweto	24	16.7.76	Gunshot wounds to left leg. Died of haemorrhage
Khubeka, Hilton	Soweto	19	17.6.76
Khubeka, Robert	Soweto	24	26.12.76	Stab wounds
Khubeka, Zabulon	Soweto	47	22.8.76
Kumalo, Zolile	Soweto
Kunene, Edward	Soweto	42	18.6.76	Stabbed twice on left side of chest
Kunene, Norman		27	17.6.76	Shot
Kwadi, Gunston	Soweto	32	26.8.76	Gunshot wounds to head
Kwinana, Gregory	Soweto	38	17.6.76
Laaka, Erick		58	17.9.76	Multiple wounds to stomach
Lebelo, Abiel	Soweto	20	4.8.76	Shot and teargassed
Leburu, John	Soweto	23	18.6.76
Leburu, Nathaniel		39		Bullet through spinal cord
Ledwaba, Jacob	Soweto		26.12.76
Lee, Ralph, R	Retreat	34	8.9.76	Shot in neck from front
Leepo, Junior			19.1.77	Burnt to death by petrol bomb
Lengwali, Patrick	Soweto		11.1.77
Lengwathi, Patrick Themba	Soweto		16.6.76	Shot
Lepota, David			26.12.76
Leroke, Hermina	Soweto		26.12.77
Lesele, Tutu John	Langa	45	11.8.76	Shot in calf, buttock and chest from behind
Lesejane, Ashely	Moepong		31.12.76
Lesumi, J.	Soweto		26.12.76	Assaulted by hostel inmates with choppers
Letlaku, J.	Soweto		26.12.76
Letleka, Dominic	Soweto	4	18.6.76
Letsholo, Peter	Soweto	21	25.8.76
Leukes, Owen	Bonteheumwel	17		Reported in official police list as a casualty not resulting from police action.
Limba, Cyril Ivan	Manenberg	18	9.9.76	Shot in back and small of back at Vistula Tavern Bottle Store
Linda, Petrus King	Soweto	26	26.12.76	Killed by gunshot.
Lloyd, Jan	Soweto		26.12.76
Louw, Samuel	Gugulethu	42	11.8.76	Shot in chest from front
Lucas, Cornelius	Mosselbay			Died prior to September 15
Lutiya, Wiseman	Gugulethu	22	11.8.76	Shot in abdominal cavity
Luphindo, Inspector	Soweto	24	2.7.76
Lupiwane, Goowill	Soweto	35	18.2.77	Fractured skull
Luvatsha, Reginald	Soweto		26.12.76
Luvatsha, Thembo	Soweto		26.6.76	Bullet wounds below stomach
Mabandla, Selby	Soweto	58	26.12.76	Chopped on head when hostel dwellers attacked Soweto Residents
Mabaso, Erick	Soweto	18	26.12.76
Mabaso, Mathabeni	Soweto		26.12.76
Mabaso, N	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot
Mabena, Peter	Soweto		26.12.76	Stabbed
Mabitsa, Steven		58	19.6.76	Stab wounds in chest – died during riots
Maboya, Bennet	Soweto		26.12.76
Maboya, Bernard	Soweto		26.12.76
Mabuku, Glagys	Soweto		26.12.76
Mabunda, Sam Boy	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Mabuya, B.	Soweto		26.12.76	Bullet wound to mouth and shoulder
Mabuza, Patrick	Soweto	24	17.9.76
Mabuza, Shadrack	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Mabyka, Gladys	Soweto	26	18.2.77
Madibo, P.	Alexandra		26.12.76	Shot in left shoulder
Madikane, Daniel	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Madzivhandla, Patrick	Soweto		26.12.76
Madupe, Johannes				Disappeared during June 1976 in Ga-Rankuwa. Police have no further records
Maepa, Simon	Soweto		26.12.76
Maga, Dane	Alexandra		26.12.76	Bullet wound
Magadani, Florence	Soweto		26.12.76
Magagula, Petrus		49		Shot dead
Mahapo, Godfrey	Soweto		26.12.76
Mahasha, Daniel	Soweto		26.12.77
Mahlaba, David	Soweto	24	26.12.78
Mahlambi, Pauline	Soweto		26.12.79	Bullet wound on thigh.
Mahlaza, Raymond	Soweto	24	17.6.76	Shot in hip
Mahlinza, Maxwell	Soweto	24	17.6.76	Shot in hip
Mahopo, G.	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot
Mahurawe, Titus		13		Shot in the back.
Maichetha, Walter	Soweto	15	26.12.76
Mailangwe, Richard	Soweto		26.12.76
Maipa, Simon	Soweto		26.12.77
Majambela, Archibald	Gugulethu	23	11.8.76	Shot in chest from front
Majamba, Douglas	Philippi	20	12.8.76	Shot in chest from front
Majeka, Rebecca	Langa	37	11.8.76	Shot through neck from behind
Majoko, Daniel	Soweto		26.12.78
Majola, Nongoentu	Soweto	28	8.8.76	Shot dead by Railway police
Majola, Boy	Soweto		26.12.76
Majola, Titus	Soweto	15	19.7.76
Makaluza, Ellen	Gugulethu		26.12.76	Axed to death by migrant workers
Makundayi, Monica	Gugulethu	5	26.12.76	Shot dead
Makate, Washington	Soweto	26	25.8.76	Shotgun pellet wounds to both legs. Died of haemorrhage.
Makari, Abraham	Soweto	43	18.2.77	Stab wound
Makate, Washington T	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot through the neck.
Makgabane, Peter	Soweto		26.12.76
Makgetle, David	Soweto		26.12.76
Makhabane, Petrus K.	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot in chest and stomach
Makhari, Abraham	Soweto	33	26.12.76
Makhetha, Percy		15	26.12.76.	Bullet wound
Makhotla, Makhosi	Soweto	41	7.9.76	Gunshot wounds to abdomen
Malindisa, George	Soweto	23	31.7.76
Mamogobo, Ezra		49	24.7.76	Head and body injuries
Maneli, Gladwell, V.	Gugulethu		2.1.77	Beaten to death by group of migrant workers
Manale. Herbert	Soweto		26.12.76
Manganyi, Victor	Soweto		26.12.76
Manhayi, Arthur	Soweto	24	24.8.76	Chopped to death, allegedly by hostel dwellers
Mankayi, Benjamin	Soweto	39	23.8.76	Stabbed during attack by hostel dweller.
Mankayi, Gideon	Soweto	39	24.8.76	Cut across the head with sharp instrument
Maphalala, S.	Soweto		27.8.76	Shot
March, Phillip	Soweto	16	20.6.76	Shot thrice through the head.
Marney, Alfred	Retreat	18	16.9.76	Shot in small of back
Maseko, Sara	Soweto	46	17.6.76	Fatal gunshot wounds to thighs. Died of haemorrhage
Maseko, Sylvester Vusi	Soweto	21	20.9.76	Gunshot wounds to the head.
Masiba, Nkululo, S.	Gugulethu	22	11.8.76	Shot in right shoulder from behind
Masimango, Bernard	Soweto		26.12.76
Masuku, Themba	Soweto		26.12.76
Masenya, Grace	Soweto		26.12.76
Mashaba, Johannes	Soweto	22	26.12.76	Strangulation
Mashiane, F.B.	Soweto		26.8.76	Shot
Mashinini, Morris	Soweto		26.12.76
Mashombo, Ben	Soweto		26.12.76
Masilela, Aby	Soweto	24	26.12.76	Multiple injuries
Masilo, Boas Sydney	Soweto		26.12.76
Masilo, E.N.	Soweto		24.8.76	Chopped by hostel residents
Masinga, David	Soweto	19	16.6.76
Masuiga, David	Soweto	19	16.6.76
Mathabathe, Aaron	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Mathagane, Elifas	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Mathebula, Jacob Sydney	Soweto	22	4.7.76	Shot through leg
Mathebula, Josiah	Soweto	54	26.12.76	Spinal cord injury
Matheson, Reginald C.	Retreat	18	8.9.76	Shot in back, neck and head from behind
Mathobela, Johan	Soweto	19	12.8.76
Matimela, Lazarus	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Matlhaku, Samuel	Soweto	66	26.6.76
Matome, Mackenzie	Soweto		26.12.76
Matsabu, Abel Jan	Soweto		26.12.76
Matsapola, E.	Soweto		26.12.76	Two bullet wounds
Matsepe, Jeffrey	Soweto		26.12.76
Matsunyane, James Sello	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot in the back, the bullet went through the body
Mavimbela, Sipho	Soweto		18.6.76	Shot through chest
Matyeni, Wellington K.		21	31.12.76	Reported missing in December 1976
May, Nicholas	Retreat	19	8.9.76	Shot in back
Mazomba, Boy Charles		18	14.9.76	Gunshot wounds while allegedly sabotaging a railway line before he fled from constable who shot him.
Mazwai, Zizwe	Gugulethu	18	8.9.76	Went to visit friend at 6pm. 8.9.76. His was found in the mortuary the next day.
Mbali, James		15	1.12.76	Shot dead
Mbatha, Ames	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Mbatha, Dumisani Isaac		16	25.9.76
Mbatha, Sipho Clement	Soweto	22	24.10.76	Multiple shotgun wounds in chest and abdomen.
Mbebe, Frank	Soweto		26.12.76
Mbeki, Princess	Soweto		17.9.76	Police fired on crowed of students at Sekano-Ntoane High School. Gunshot wounds.
Mbele, Aaron	Soweto		26.12.76	Struck by bullet.
Mbele, Simon	Soweto		24.10.76	Died of bullet wounds in the head and chest.
Mbengwane, Stanley	Soweto	28	26.12.76
McDeci, Richard	Manenberg	35	9.9.76	Shot in back
Mchunu, Moses	Soweto	12	26.12.76	Gross mutilation of the head.
Mda, John	Soweto	32	17.6.76	Gunshot wounds to chest and lungs
Mdayi, Dambile, S.	Langa	24	11.8.76	Shot in chest from front
Menwe, Peter	Soweto		26.12.76
Mevana, David	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot through sternum
Meyer, Karel	Sheerwood Park	45	9.9.76	Shot in right buttock from behind
Mhlanga, Samuel	Soweto	17	26.12.76	Fractured skull
Mhlongo, Felix	Alexandra		18.6.76	Shot – wounded in lung, heart and spinal column
Miller, Lord	Soweto		26.12.76
Mithi, Lily	Soweto		26.12.76
Mjamba, Douglas	Gugulethu	20	12.8.76
Mkafulo, Cajulo	Langa	36	11.8.76	Shot through back and heart from behind
Mkhize, Tusokwakhe	Soweto		26.12.76
Mkhotlana, Elias	Moletsane	43	26.12.76
Mkhwanazi, Israel	Soweto	26	26.12.76	Stab wounds
Mkhwanazi, Lindiwe	Soweto		26.12.76
Mkwanzi, L	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot
Mlangeni, Lea	Soweto		26.12.76
Mlangeni, Mbopha	Soweto	18	14.9.76
Mlilo, Amos		30	24.8.76	Police told inquest court that he could have been a victim of hostel dwellers in Soweto.
Mlotshwa, Derrick		23	14.9.76	Multiple bullet wounds to chest
Mmutle, Dennis	Soweto		26.12.76	Bullet wound through the side
Mncedisi, Mazwi	Gugulethu	16	9.9.76	Left for soccer practice on 9.9.76. His body was found in the mortuary the next day.
Mncube, Gideon	Soweto	20	15.7.76
Mnculwane, Mantombi	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot
Mngemane, Morris	Soweto	18	20.6.76	Five bullet wounds.
Mngoma, Tenson	Soweto		26.12.76
Mngomezulu, Simon	Soweto	29	18.6.76
Moatlhudi, Agnes	Soweto	10	26.12.76
Moatse, Titus	Soweto	15	19.7.76
Modisane, Samuel Oupa	Soweto	19	24.8.76	Bullet wound through the heart. Was found dead in the street not far from his house. He was hit by some pellets when the crowd dispersed.
Modise, Peter		60		Head injuries
Modise, J.	Dobsonville		26.12.76	Shot in the stomach
Modukanele, Isaac Rasebata	Alexandra		26.12.76	Shot
Modukanele, Jacob	Soweto		26.12.76
Moerane, Jacob	Soweto	23	19.6.76	Burnt under vehicle
Mofokeng, R.A.	Soweto		17.6.76	Stabbed with bottle
Mogapi, Samuel		4	5.3.77	Shot in head
Mogapi, Stephen			26.12.76
Mogola, Johannes	Soweto		26.12.76
Mogotsi, Nchimane Philemon	Soweto		26.12.76
Mofokeng, Raymond	Soweto	14	25.8.76	Gunshot wounds to chest and neck
Mohamme, J.	Soweto		24.8.76	Stabbed in the stomach, face sliced off
Mohapi, Steven	Soweto	58	18.2.77	Head injuries
Mohapi, Jacob		16	23.9.76	Died of bullet wounds to lung
Mohlabane, Mphele	Soweto		26.12.76
Mohwaduba, Simon	Mabopane		31.12.76
Mokgatle, Mohatle Moses	Soweto	47	26.12.76	Stab wounds
Mokobi, Cornelius		24	30.8.76	Found dead with shotgun wound in chest
Mokoena, Moremane		14		Two bullet wounds to chest and leg
Mokoena, Amos	Soweto		26.12.76
Mokoena, Moses	Soweto		26.12.76
Mokoena, Vincent	Soweto		26.12.76
Molapo. Lobian	Soweto		26,12,76
Molefe, John	Soweto	19	25.6.76
Molefe, Peter	Soweto	21	26.12.76
Moleko. Hendrick	Soweto		18.6.76	Shot in the stomach
Moloi, Joseph Karabo		16	29.9.76	Bullet through stomach
Moloi, Philadelphia		17		Shot dead
Mononyane, Joseph S.	Soweto		18.6.76
Montjane, Elijah	Soweto		26.12.76
Mooketsi, Johan	Soweto		26.12.76
Morolong, Bruce			31.12.76	Reported missing after December disturbances
Morolong, J.P.	Soweto		23.9.76	Stabbed and beaten to death
Moses, Phillip	Ravensmead	41	7.9.76	Shot in stomach from front
Mosie, Ezekiel, Z. X.	Langa	18	12.8.76	Shot in head from front in front of Langa Police Station
Mothutsane, Petrus		25	25.8.76	Gunshot wound to chest
Motsweni, Daniel Nethan	Soweto		25.9.76	Gunshot wounds
Mphetha, Lawrence	Soweto		26.12.76
Mphithi, Joseph	Soweto
Mpinga, Joseph	Soweto	34	25.9.76
Mpusula, Simon	Soweto		26.12.76
Mshelwane, Lawrence	Soweto	27	26.12.76	Gunshot wounds to abdomen
Mshudulu, Welili R	Gugulethu	23	11.8.76	Shot in chest from front
Mrwebi, Daniel	Gugulethu	23	12.8.76	Shot in stomach from front
Msimanga, Mbekiseni	Soweto		26.12.76
Mteto, Temba	Gugulethu	21	31.8.76
Mthembo, John	Soweto		26.12.76
Mthembu, Reuben	Soweto	19	26.12.76
Mthemba, Mzinane		27	14.9.756	Body was found after crowd dispersed
Mthombeni, M.	Soweto		26.12.76	Attacked by thugs
Mtshadi, Simon	Soweto		26.12.76
Mubuya, Bennett	Soweto		26.12.76
Mukel, Dennis	Soweto		26.12.76
Muller, Jurie	Elsies’ River	16	9.9.76	Shot in side of head and upper body
Mutlane, Herman		42		Bullet wound through head
Mvukuse, Rebson, T	Gugulethu		17.9.76	Shot
Mzwamadoda, M.B.A.	Langa	35	11.8.76	Shot in right shoulder from behind
Mzila, Hezia	Soweto		26.12.76
Mziwoke, Jan Lloyd		35	18.6.76	Gunshot wound to chest
Nabuka, Ambrose	Soweto		26.12.76
Nare, Michael	Mamelodi		31.12.76
Ncube, Daniel	Soweto		26.12.76	Bullet wound to hip
Ndau, Herbert	Soweto		26.12.76
Ndebele, Zuzele	Soweto		26.12.76
Ndibongo, Michael	Soweto		26.12.76
Ndingane, Mzimkhulu	Gugulethu	11	14.9.76	Shot in stomach from front
Ndlela, Hector	Soweto	20	26.12.76
Ndlovu, H.J.	Soweto		26.12.76	Bullet wound to forehead
Ndlovu, Jimmy	Soweto		26.12.76
Ndlovu, Lesley Hastings	Soweto	17	16.6.76
Ndlovu, Obed	Soweto	16	26.12.76
Ndlovu, Timothy	Soweto	36	18.6.76
Ndou, Herber	Soweto		26.12.76
Nduna, Sifanelo K.	Langa	38	11.8.76	Shot in small of back and loin from behind
Ndunga, Nicholas S.	Gugulethu	22	11.8.76	Shot in chest from front at bottle store
Ndzube, Norman B.	Gugulethu		4.12.76	Shot dead
Ngaba, Wellington	Soweto		26.12.76	Shot
Ngabi, Joseph M.	Camps Bay	22	11.8.76	Shot dead
Ngcobo, Oben	Soweto	17	26.12.76
Nqcobo, Thuthuka		16	15.9.76	Gunshot wounds
Nqcobo, Eric		16		Shot in head
Ngemane, Morris	Soweto		26.12.76
Ngobeni, Harry	Soweto	26	26.12.76
Ngobeni, Johannes	Mabopane		31,12,76
Ngoma, Tennyson	Soweto		26.12.76
Ngubene, Aaron	Soweto		26.12.76
Ngubene, Vusimuzi	Soweto	34	26.12.76
Ngwenya, Amon Vusi	Soweto		26.12.76
Ngwenya, Stanley	Soweto	34	17.6.76
Nhlapo, Timothy	Soweto	31	26.12.76
Nixkey, Basil W.	Manenberg	41	9.9.76	Shot in back at Green Dolphin Bottle Store
Nkabinde, Fanyana	Soweto	17	26.12.76	Stab wounds to chest and heart
Nkambule, David	Soweto		26.12.76
Nkangana, Zacharia	Nyanga	18	26.12.76	Shot dead
Nkata, Samuel	Soweto		26.12.76
Nkofu, Mnyane, Jacob	Soweto		26,12,76
Nkomo, Eric	Soweto	17	26.12.76
Nkonyane, Norurau	Soweto	34	10.8.76
Nkosi, Jacob	Pretoria, Mamelodi		31.12.76
Nkosi, Monica	Soweto	6	1.8.76
Nkosi, Patrick	Soweto	20	23.8.76	Bullet wound through neck. Shot when fled from arrest
Nkuta, Gordon	Soweto	19	25.7.76
Nkutha, H.P.	Alexandra		26.12.76	Shot

Response to the June 16 Soweto Youth Uprising by organisations in exile

June 16 marks the commemoration of National Youth Day in South Africa. This is the day the country reflects on the massacre of many innocent school children during the Soweto Uprising of 1976. The response of the organisations in exile can be understood in the context of the events that took place on the day. The students had organised a peaceful march against the Afrikaans Medium Decree, issued in 1974, which made it mandatory for black schools to use the Afrikaans language as the medium of instruction in Mathematics, Social Sciences and Geography at the secondary school level. Punt Janson, the Deputy Minister of then Bantu Education, was quoted as saying: “I have not consulted the African people on the language issue and I’m not going to. An African might find that ‘the big boss’ spoke only Afrikaans or spoke only English. It would be to his advantage to know both languages.”

The policy was deeply unpopular since Afrikaans was regarded by some as the language of the oppressor. It was against this background that on 30 April 1976, students at Orlando West Junior School in Soweto went on strike and boycotted classes. By 16 June, their rebellion spread to other schools in Soweto. Incidentally, the student-organised mass rally on this date turned violent, as the police responded with bullets to stones thrown by the angry students. Many students were shot. The official death toll was 23, but it could have been higher than 200 because the incident triggered widespread violence throughout South Africa, which claimed more lives. The first student to be shot on that fateful day was 15-year old Hastings Ndlovu. However, the killing in the same incident of Hector Pieterson, aged 12, and in particular the publication of his photograph taken by Sam Nzima, made him an international icon of the uprising. It became the major rallying point of the struggle against apartheid.

Military Response: Camps in exile

The incident triggered widespread violence not only in Soweto but also throughout South Africa. For the political organisations in exile, notably, the African National Congr ess(ANC) and Pa n Africanist Congress(PAC), the Soweto unrest in June 1976 provided a golden opportunity both for recruitment and military training of young men and women. Many black people felt in danger of being arrested by the police and further underground activities were launched as a result of this threat. Discreet recruitment operations culminated in many incensed students taking up arms against the government, and being sent for military training. Hence the mushrooming of military camps such as Mkhumbane in Temeke (Tanzania) outside the country, under the command and mentorship of Ntate Mashego and the Engineering camp in Angola. Recruits were advised on how to unlawfully cross the border(s) into Botswana, Swaziland, Angola, Mozambique and Tanzania, where they received military training. It is essential to note that the accession to power of the Mozambique Liberation Front (Frelimo) in Mozambique and the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in Angola in 1975, together with the exodus of thousands of young people in the months following the Soweto uprising, created favourable conditions for the resumption of sabotage activity in South Africa, especially after the collapse of the ANC/Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) joint operation (i.e. the Wank ie Campaign). These developments were followed by the infiltration of trained fighters back into South Africa, bombings of white installations and the trials of anti-apartheid activists.

Clearly, an issue that gave rise to a vast number of trials under security legislation was the massive recruitment of people and their transportation out of South Africa. While there is certainly some indication that this was already on the increase prior to June 1976, the revolts of 1976 clearly gave an enormous boost to the activity of organisations recruiting members for military training. This is especially so in the case of the ANC, but there is also some evidence that PAC activity had been revitalised to some extent. As a result, there were many South Africans in ANC and PAC training camps. The period also witnessed a large number of trials against recruitment for military training. Those who were brought to trial for this offence seemed to reach a peak in 1977 and the first part of 1978. Many trained guerrilla fighters returned to South Africa, often wielding a large quantity of arms, explosives and ammunition. This group included the black school children who fled or were recruited in the wake of the June 1976 rebellion. Their activities gave rise to a number of trials as exemplified by the case of Petrus Bushy Molefe, aged 22, who underwent training in East Germany, and was charged for sabotage and terrorism under the Sabotage and Terrorism Acts of June 1962 and June 1967 respectively. Related to this was the large quantity of arms and ammunition found by police in their attempts to uncover guerrillas in the urban areas and in clashes in the rural areas. It is important to note that most of the arms caches that were uncovered comprised weapons originating from the then Soviet Union, and the Eastern bloc countries, which suggests that the West was not prepared to lend similar support to the Southern African guerrilla movements.

On 30 November 1976 a group of armed guerrillas clashed with the South African Police near Bordergate, on the Swaziland/South African border. A hand grenade was detonated by one of the guerrillas, injuring two policemen, and allowing the insurgents to escape. Shortly before this incident a railway line near Dikgale, in the Pietersburg district, was damaged in a successful sabotage attempt. From December 1976, in a series of raids covering Johannesburg, Soweto, Alexandra, Rustenburg, Odi, Nebo, Pietersburg and Sekhukhuniland, security police detained a number of ANC activists. Towards the middle of 1977 twelve accused activists, who included Mosima Gabriel “Tokyo” Sexwale, were charged under the Terrorism Act in the famous trial of the “Pretoria 12”. They were mainly accused of being members or active supporters of certain unlawful organisations in South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique, Russia and China such as the ANC, the South African Communist Pa rty(SACP) and Umk honto we Sizwe(MK). They were also alternately charged with endangering, in various ways, the maintenance of law and order in South Africa; undergoing military and other training; possession of explosives, ammunition, firearms and weapons; harbouring and rendering assistance to guerrillas; as well as taking part in the activities of a banned organisation. On the whole, they were accused of conspiring to overthrow the white government and were all convicted on the main count of sedition.

Thus, the response of the political organisations operating in exile was one that was premised on mobilisation, recruitment of people and the organisation of the armed phase of the struggle from outside in order to topple the apartheid government. Clearly, the events of the Soweto revolt and the response from the liberation movement in exile are not isolated developments. They have their roots in the spirit of resistance to the growing crisis of apartheid. The collective resistance to oppression and exploitation in South Africa also fundamentally underpins the relationship that was forged between internal and external forms of organisation after this incident. It led to major transformations in the strategies of the various exiled liberation movements more in accordance with the changing conditions in the country. A militant approach, that found expression in the recruitment and subsequent training of the cadres in neighbouring as well as some European and Asian countries, was emphasised.

References to Youth and the National Liberation Struggle 1894-1994

• Brits, J. P. (1995). The Concise Dictionary of Historical and Political Terms, London: Penguin.
• Christie, P. (1991). The Right to Learn: The Struggle for Education in South Africa, Johannesburg: Sached Trust/Ravan Press.
• Cross, M. (1992). Resistance and Transformation: Education Culture and Reconstruction in South Africa, Johannesburg: Skotaville.
• Howcroft, P. unpublished South African Encyclopaedia papers.
• Kallaway, P. (ed) (1984). Apartheid and Education: The Education of Black South Africans, Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
• Saunders, C. & Southey, N. (1998). A Dictionary of South African History, Cape Town: David Philip.

 

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